The Political Dynamics of People’s Power Essay Sample free essay sample

It was people’s power. more than some other thing. which cleared Marcos from his Malacanang seat and which introduced in his topographic point Corazon Aquino as the new leader of the Philippines. It would other than be people’s power which could hinder a Marcos response. indeed, even without Marcos himself. or then again an outgrowth of another absolutism for that undertaking. In any case, what definitely does the term people’s power mean? People’s influence would just make reference to the limit of the individuals to outline cultural fortunes that are consonant with their ain yearnings. Thusly. this involves the acknowledgment of the individuals themselves of their ain capacity to do history. People’s power is showed either in self-created or composed signifiers of activity. For case. most of the individuals who partook in the claimed â€Å"February Revolution were chaotic people who reacted to the situation precipitously. It is contended here. in any case. that an increasingly composed signifier of people’s power is required in the more fragile and entangled endeavor of remaking a messed up state and reconstituting a harsh cultural administration. At a similar clasp. people’s force will proceed to be important power in the public eye simply if the hoards would truly speak to themselves into self composed gatherings fit for voicing their ain requests in the middle period of political relations. In this sense. the nearness of free mass association in the political framework would non simply capacity to propel ace individuals approaches in specialists however would other than move as an offseting instrument to the conceivable abuse and corruptness of the territory power. The foundation of new political relations dependent on mainstream vote based system would other than demoralize the wants of the customary lawmakers to swing the state back to the old political relations dependent on intra- first class rivalry which existed before soldierly statute. The Basis of Elite Politicss World class vote based system held influence in the Philippines during the post-pilgrim period up to the curse of soldierly law in 1972. It was portrayed by the laterality of two significant ideological groups. the Nationalista Party ( NP ) and the Liberal Party ( LP ) . whose individuals just changed from one cantonment to the next. This had been made conceivable by the commonsense character of the foundation of specialists of the two gatherings. The NP and LP were in certainty simply two intrigues of a similar feeling classification. Choose political relations is established along a rich arrangement of support political relations highlight porc barrel allocations and the corruption. Support political relations among Filipinos is a guide of a partiality framework. On the different manus. this is because of the Filipino social estimation of natural order. In result. these announcements disclose to us that choose political relations is here to remain in light of the fact that it is worked in among Filipinos. The underlying foundations of choose backing political relations lie in the congruity of extreme cultural imbalance and mass poverty. A penniless people could be simple enticed into exchanging their voting forms for guarantees of wagess in the signifier of cash and occupations from prosperous government officials. It is non amazing. accordingly for legislators to build up their sights on ghetto nations as imprints for vote-purchasing flings during races. The noticeable quality of political warlords in the Filipino political scene shows a cultural set-up where the convergence of riches and influence in the terrains of the couple of could facilitate the council of extortion and fear based oppressor act during constituent exercisings. That’s why Filipino races have ever been fierce. In 1971. political decision related murdering arrived at the all clasp high of 243. By mid 1971. there were 80 political warlords around the state. With the punishment of soldierly statute. Marcos decimated only the political warlords counter to him. It would be an existent preliminary for the main of Aquino on the off chance that she could destruct the force base of Marcos’s political warlords each piece great as forestall the reappearance of old 1s and the visual part of new 1s. Soldierly Law and the Politicss of Repression Soldierly statute did non set a terminal to world class political relations. It basically limited its search inside the Marcos intrigue of the world class. On the other hand of intra-tip top rivalry. there was area corporatism. While interfering with the dorsums of all autonomous political foundations. Marcos tried to set up government-controlled or affected one time under this offer. With the end of the Congress and the crackdown on ideological groups and the broad communications. the conventional government officials were disappointed of their capacity bases. They were appropriately taken out of the political ring during the early yearss of soldierly statute. The personal circumstance of these government officials could promptly be seen when declarations came in 1978 that races for the Interim Batasang Pambansa ( National Assembly ) would be held and that another gathering the Kilusang Bagong Lipunan ( New Society Movement ) would be framed by the Marcos specialists. Previous NP and LP individuals energetically hurried into the weaponries of Marcos. With the inversion of the political pendulum. these equivalent individuals are currently hotfooting to incorporate Aquino. Some enduring obstruction lawmakers. by the by wouldn't fall in the temporary fad however meanwhile longed for the twenty-four hours when their old ideological groups would be resuscitated. On the different manus. some incredibly regarded patriot government officials of pre soldierly law yearss like Lorenzo Tanada and Jose Diokno chose to extend their group with the counter facist. hostile to radical mass movement. hence offering acknowledgment to the pertinence of power per unit zone political relations at this particular verifiable movement. Recall this were times it was non yet slick to have on xanthous nor was it safe to put one’s sense of self with the reason for the obstruction. It was an inquisitorial period when the example averment of fundamental human rights could be deciphered as extremist and could in this way increase one an occasion in jail or an excursion to paradise. Be that as it may. it was actually this inhibitory political climate cultivated by soldierly law which incited many reason arranged people to endure in their committedness to politicize and shape the individuals into mass associations that would work as channel’s of people’s power in the fight for justness and majority rule government during those dim yearss. On the off chance that there is anything to be thankful about soldierly law. the reality it instructed individuals to fight for their privileges and to asseverate their inclusions. The Aquino Assassination and the Confetti Revolutionaries The Political wake of the blackwash of previous Senator Benigno Aquino. Jr. at the landing area of the Manila International Airport on August 21. 1983 put to a horrible preliminary the Marcos regime’s ability to administer in the old way. The venturesome killing of such an extraordinary Marcos pundit stunned the esthesias of numerous individuals who aforesaid did non care about the brutal passing of laborers in the post lines or the butcher of provincials in the rustic nations. The urban Middle class moved out of their organizers and exhibited their protection from the inhibitory government by tossing xanthous confettis from the wellbeing of their tall office buildings in Ayala. After five o’clock they would blow their unmistakably cautiousnesss in the middle of class soul in these Acts of the Apostless of dissent. At a similar clasp. the gay Filipino feel which went to at the principal confetti mass gatherings after the Aquino blackwash would work as a fitting fundamental to the kind of unrest that Filipinos would do during those four yearss of February in 1986. The passage of the â€Å"yellow† protestors into the political field expand the positions of the counter autocracy mass movement which was up to so under the main of the national equitable associations. Nonetheless. the potencies of these new political powers in effectively captivating a urban fight to constrain out Marcos was non increased in value by the national Democrats who were peripheralized at the emission of the â€Å"February Revolution† . The Elections which the Dictatorship Miscalculated On November 3. 1985. President Ferdinand Marcos declared over American broadcasting his longing for snap presidential races on February 7. 1986. He expressed that he was naming it so as to obtain a new approval from the individuals. Nonetheless. the existent float for the catch surveys was a mix of political plan and American power per unit territory. Marcos felt that a prior nearby political race. initially booked for May 1986. would part his KBL power base and in this manner strap his ain presidential chances if the presidential surveys are set for 1987. At a similar clasp. Marcos needed to show to the United States specialists that he was as yet equipped for keeping stableness in the state. Of class. Marcos did non name the decisions simply to plug up as the likewise ran. The authentic actuality that a tyrant neer permits himself to lose in his ain political race turned into the get bringing down purpose of contentions among cause-situated associations with respect to the effectuality of take separating in the catch surveys. The enormous coalition of national popularity based associations Bagong Alyansang Makabayan ( BAYAN ) chose to blacklist the surveys albeit six of its national heads. Counting their leader. Tanada. documented foliages of nonappearances from the association to back up Cory Aquino. Blending to BAYAN. as an undertaking of â€Å"principle† . commitment in the expected political decision would only sanction the absolutism. Yet, for other dynamic gatherings. the issue was non one of rule alone which was hopeful yet one of â€Å"praxis† which consolidated hypothesis and example. The reasonable only needed to go down

Process Strategy and Analysis: Toyota Motors Case study Essay

Toyota Motor Corporation, Japan’s biggest and the world’s #4 carmaker by 2003 deals (after General Motors, Ford, and Daimler Chrysler), had a wide scope of items and solid brand names with excellent picture. Toyota’s developing notoriety for quality and little quantities of specialized issues in its vehicles created intriguing client dedication and a developing interest for its items. Toyota the board was dealing with the company’s stock, expenses and limit effectively and was applying cost decrease programs well overall. Toyota had riving desire to get greener. The organization made a half breed controlled (gas and electric) vehicle the prius-that had previously being gobbled up in U.S. what's more, European markets. Toyota additionally made gigantic interests in creating energy unit innovation for its vehicles. Its gas-fueled vehicles, pick-ups, minivans, and SUVs included such models as the Camry, Celica, Corolla, 4Runner, Echo, Land Cruiser, Sienna, the extravagance Lexus line, and a full-evaluated pick truck, the v-8 Tundra. Toyota additionally was making forklifts and fabricated lodging, and was offering buyer monetary administrations. With its wide dissemination channels, solid channel proficiency and viability, Toyota was both effectively contending with the world’s upper three car creators and ready to supplant GM in the top recognize this decade. Toyota was known worldwide for its exceptional vehicles, solid vehicle structure, ease, security, solid protection from wind and rollover, low fuel utilization, nearness of electronic and different gadgets in the vehicles, and solid notoriety for extravagance. Overviews, be that as it may, evaluated the allure and solace of its traveler vehicles as average. Additionally evaluated unremarkable was the rough terrain greatness of its SUVs. Toyota was an innovator in mechanical upgrades, for example, drive, creation and vehicle development innovation and had a strong capacity to structure and enhances new items, to separate its items, to advance new vehicle lines, or to expand existing vehicle lines. Worldwide deals of Toyota vehicles were expanding each year starting in 2001. Toyota demonstrated a development of 20% in its deals from March 2002 to March 2003 and development of 49.6% in its total compensation for a similar period. This expansion reflected the nature of its vehicles, yet in addition Toyota’s solid productivity in deal activities, applying balanced promoting, going into organization and joint endeavors with different organizations around the world, being cost serious, firmly applying deals motivators, for example, guarantee augmentations, and applying notice devices, for example, TV advertisements, advertisements in magazines and papers and show introductions. Toyota required little utilization of financing bundles and radio ads in its deal motivating force programs. Likewise, Toyota was known for solid after-deal benefits that helped the organization to fortify associations with its clients and nature of administration gave to them. Toyota had a solid, exceptional corporate culture that helped the organization stay very efficient and profoundly serious. Toyota additionally had solid co-activity with its accomplices and among its divisions that permitted Toyota to advance co-ordinate interdivisional tasks. In contrast with its large three rivals, Toyota had solid assembling tasks with the capacity to deliver profoundly inventive items, exploiting minimal effort structures, capacity to open new assembling plants, profiting by economies of scale. Transplant amassing. Accessibility of innovation for its creation, and accessibility and norms of sources, the capacity to enter new markets, and such, Also, Toyota had unequivocally adjusted its exercises both locally and globally. There are five premise courses in favor: (1) decrease assets, (2) diminish blunders, (3) meet or surpass desires for downstream clients, (4) make the procedure more secure, and (5) make the procedure additionally fulfilling to the individual doing it. Initial, a procedure that utilizes a larger number of assets than should be expected is inefficient. Reports that are conveyed to a larger number of individuals than should be expected burns through duplicating and appropriation time, material, client read time, and, in the long run, life space. Second, generally, mistakes are an indication of poor workmanship and require improve. Composing mistakes that are identified after the PC printout require opening the record, making the rectification, and printing the changed report. Third, meeting or surpassing desires for downstream clients improves the procedure. For instance, the better the weld, the less pounding required, showing up of a completion paint more The fourth way a procedure can be improved is by making it more secure. A more secure work environment is a progressively profitable one with less lost-time mishaps and less laborers remuneration claims. The fifth method to improve process is to expand the fulfillment of the individual playing out the procedure. In some cases a little change, for example, an ergonomically Roll out a generous improvement in a person’s mentality toward their work. Assembling cycle The assembling cycle ordinarily happens at the wholesaler/producer for retailer/maker) interface and incorporates all procedures engaged with renewing merchant (or retailer) stock. The assembling cycle is activated by client orders or by the figure of client request and current item accessibility in the manufacturer’s completed products stockroom. One extraordinary in an assembling cycle is an incorporated steel plant that gathers arranges that is comparable enough to empower the producer to deliver in enormous amounts. For this situation, the assembling cycle is responding to client request (alluded to as a draw procedure). Another outrageous is a customer items firm that must create fully expecting request. For this situation the assembling cycle is envisioning client request (alluded to as a push procedure). The procedures engaged with the assembling cycle Request appearance from the completed merchandise stockroom, wholesaler, retailer, or client Creation planning Assembling and transportation Accepting at the merchant, retailer, or client Request appearance During this procedure a completed merchandise stockroom or wholesaler sets a renewal request trigger dependent on the figure of future interest and current item inventories. The subsequent requests are then passed on to the producer. At times the client or retailer might be requesting legitimately from the producer. In different cases a maker might be creating to stock a completed items distribution center. In the last circumstance, the request is activated dependent on item accessibility and a conjecture of future interest. This procedure is like the retail request trigger procedure in the renewal cycle. Creation booking This procedure is like the request passage process in the recharging cycle where stock is assigned to a request. During the creation planning procedure, arranges (or guage orders) are apportioned to a creation plan. Given the ideal creation amounts for every item, the producer must settle on the exact creation grouping. On the off chance that there are various lines, the producer should likewise choose which items to designate to each line. The target of the creation planning process is to amplify the extent of requests occupied on schedule while minimizing expenses. Assembling and Shipping This procedure is identical to the request satisfaction process portrayed in the renewal cycle. During the assembling period of the procedure, the maker produces to the creation plan. During the delivery period of this procedure, the item is transported to the client, retailer, merchant, or completed item stockroom. The target of the assembling and transportation process is to make and boat the item by the guaranteed due date while meeting quality prerequisites and minimizing expenses. Appropriation Toyota utilized the conventional conveyance channels; vehicles from the creation places were appropriated to national or provincial dissemination, which at that point circulated the vehicles to the nearby vendors. The three units of Toyota that created traveler vehicles, SUVs, light trucks, and smaller than normal vans. Toyota was likewise going into associations with different carmakers around the world, for example, South Korean Hyundai and Chinese carmakers, and utilized their conveyance channels to enter the business sectors where these accomplices were transcendent. With these exercises, Toyota was attempting to adjust its dissemination channels worldwide and to build the productivity and viability of their circulation channels. Assembling Toyota had fabricating offices in 37 nations and sold its items in 200 nations around the globe. As the circumstance disintegrated in 2003, producers were progressively encountering stock issues as they couldn't move their developing reserve of vehicles into the soaked armada advertise. With the expanding expenses of item stockpiling and diminished retail incomes, combined with loosened up buyer request, creation slices was probably going to happen in the organization. Likewise, Toyota was searching for approaches to open creation puts in locales like China and Mexico, so as to profit by modest work power and addition upper hand. In this procedure the item is gotten at the wholesaler, completed merchandise stockroom, retailer, or client and stock records are refreshed. Different procedures identified with capacity and reserve moves additionally happen. Not many organizations on the planet exceed expectations at consistent enhancement for a corporate-wide premise like Toyota Motor Organization. Toyota is maybe most popular for its profoundly powerful creation framework, named â€Å"lean manufacturing† by a MIT concentrate in the 1980’s (Womack et. Al, 1990). Be that as it may, strikingly, history’s most effective technique for creation was not conceived from an unexpected talk by a quick individual (in spite of the fact that Toyota has had a lot of those throughout the years). Or maybe, it evolv

Tips on How to Write an Investigative Essay

Tips on How to Write an Investigative EssayInvestigative essays are the great equalizer for those who are very smart and yet have not been well-trained in the right area. Though there are many people who do not have the true ability to perform an investigation, yet they can still write excellent investigations of their subjects.Students who want to explore careers as an investigator can do so by writing such essays. Most of these students can also be classified as good essay writers. However, they need to also know some tips on how to write effective investigations.The first thing that is needed to write a good topic is creativity. There are a lot of topics that would require a lot of skills. It is important to choose the subject wisely since it will determine the kind of investigation that will be done. This will help students who really have that unique ability to write about any topic.The first tip on how to write an investigation is to always remember the basic form of an investi gation. The main thing that is needed is the question or an inquiry. A good investigator will ask his subject about the issue that he or she is dealing with.The way a subject responds to a question can be very telling about what he or she has to say. In order to find out what a subject has to say, the investigator should use his or her information for gathering the facts that they need. Then, the next step is to report the details that they gathered from the facts.Students must know that the topic that they are going to research should have a starting point. Therefore, it is necessary for the students to think of a subject that has a starting point. From there, they should try to find facts that will be able to support their information. However, this requires the students to be well-informed on the topic. The next tip on how to write an essay is to always include a conclusion that will be necessary to support the topic. The ending paragraph should be written to support the topic an d give it more emphasis in the essay. Therefore, the conclusion is also considered as the lead of the essay.In order to make sure that they are doing their research right, students who are planning to write investigative essay topics must make sure that they follow all of the tips that were mentioned above. These tips will help them in choosing the proper topic and writing an excellent investigative piece that will satisfy their readers. Thus, writing an investigative essay can be very easy if one follows these steps correctly.

Marks and Meanings - 935 Words

Kylee Lologo Professor Turnbull English 1A 9 July 2014 Marks and Meanings Tattoos are just one way that someone can express themselves. There are thousands of designs and artists that are able to create pictures desired by some people. There are many styles of tattoos that are seen today such as; American traditional, Japanese traditional, realism, and portrait. One style that is completely different from the rest is Polynesian tribal tattoos. Polynesian tattoos are separate from the rest in that their design is very structured and geometrical. Following lines and shapes each tattoo may have their own style, but all of them are similar because of the details that go into them. With each island in Polynesia the tattoos may differ,†¦show more content†¦The tattoo artist will dip the bone combs into the ink and puncture the skin repeatedly in order for the ink to set into the skin. He works with two assistants that will stretch the skin and wipe the excess ink off of the body. This process takes place while lying on mats put on th e ground with the artist around the patient. Usually family members will surround the space to give support to the man who is getting the tattoo. If he was not to finish the tattoo, it is seen as a sign of weakness, and he will bring great shame to him and his family. These tattoos could ultimately take weeks to finish and is a very painful process to go through. Just sitting through what it takes to receive the tattoo shows a sign of strength and having the tattoo is believed to bring good to who have it. Getting these tattoos takes a lot of thought and consideration. Thinking about the different symbols that one wants inside the tattoo depends solely on the reason they are getting it. The placement is also a factor that leads to the meaning of the tattoo and can ultimately change what the whole thing stands for. Going through the process of this is a task within itself, and once you start, it is not worth it to stop. Polynesian tattoos are a separate art that needs to be appreciat ed for all of the hard work and thought that goes into eachShow MoreRelatedCritically assess the view that the word â€Å"good† has no real meaning (35 marks)2130 Words   |  9 Pages Critically assess the view that the word â€Å"good† has no real meaning (35 marks) Meta ethics looks at ethical language and helps us to identify whether the word good is meaningful. Analytical statements are sentences that are true because of the relationship between the subject and the predicate. Analytical statements are usually self-explanatory, e.g. all carnivores eat meat; we know what a carnivore eats which is meat, the subject is the carnivore and the predicate here is the meat. AnalyticalRead MoreThe Deconstructive Angel (Meyer H. 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Bullying in Schools Essay - 1743 Words

Bullying in Schools Many people feel that some of the major issues that plague our schools are drug/alcohol use or violence, yet no one recognizes the significance of school bullying. For the victims of bullying, they go to school everyday facing harassment, taunting, and humiliation. For all potential educators, it is very important to realize that bullying is a problem, so that they can work to prevent it in the future. Since being at Middle School, I have realized how prevalent bullying is on a daily basis. In addition to reading various sources, I decided to ask some of my students about the bullying they experience or witness in their own school environment. I felt learning about bullying directly from the students†¦show more content†¦Most bullies are male, popular, and often athletes (Espelage 2001). They have excellent social skills, with the ability to attract many followers, and easily manipulate others (Bullies... 2001). Bullies are psychologically strong and very popular among their peers. This peer status is important in terms of boosting their well-being. Its disturbing to think that bullies are feeling really good about themselves. Bullying behavior is self-reinforcing: When kids find that putting others down earns them approval from their peers, they are likely to do it again and again. Many times they can easily butter up to adults, making them unsuspecting bullies (Espelage 2001). In general, a bully is someone who teases and intimidates other students, although there are many other ways to bully a fellow student. Many people feel the typical bully comes from a broken home, but this is not necessarily true. Yet, the less supervision a child gets at home, the more likely he is to be a bully. About 30 to 40% of bullies show some levels of depression, and their bullying is often a cry for help. (Espelage 2001). 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Genre, Plot, And Theme Of This Play - 1321 Words

1) Discuss the genre, plot, and theme of this play. The genre is a musical comedy. The rock music of the eighties moves the play through the story that is centered in the Bourbon Room bar in Los Angeles. Most of the characters in the play used to be in a rock band, currently are in a rock band or are trying hard to get into a rock band. The girls who wanted or currently want to make in movies are bar waitresses and strippers. Big business wants to close down the strip and develop a new business district. The classic rock hits and the main love interest moves the story toward a happy and energetic ending. 2) Did you enjoy the production? Why or why not? I enjoy comedies and I love many of the songs that were in the play so I could not help but laugh and sing along at times. The production was very good overall. I was uncomfortable with the strippers. The very suggestive dances and constant presence of the outfits were not necessary for the overall story. The females playing the strippers did a good job and did deliver in lines and lyrics. The actors did a very convincing job. The vocals were strong and the live rock band gave the show a punch. The small stage and limited seating at the Virginia Samford Theatre were strengths. The actors were close and you could see every expression. The size of the theatre helps pull you into the play. 3) Which actors did a convincing job? Describe their technique. I was very impressed with the quality of Birmingham talent. Many of the mainShow MoreRelatedWilliam Shakespeare s The West A Full Length Play1524 Words   |  7 PagesPlays have been around for many years, they have transformed through the years, getting better and better. A play would be considered as an event that is held at the theatre which means â€Å"seeing place†. Plays have a playwright who creates the play and then there are actors, or characters, who take the role of the people in the play to make it come alive for the audience. 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The term Postmodernism Essay Paper Example For Students

The term Postmodernism Essay Paper Modernism sought the sacrifice of beauty for the pursuit of functionality, but under postmodernism, there is an understanding that aesthetics and functionality can coexist. IKEA furniture for example minimalist space saving functionality merged with aesthetics. Finally, another significant feature of postmodernism is the celebration of difference rather than good or bad. This concept rejects all moral principles. Writers like Kumar call it nihilism. Expansion of religious beliefs and local knowledge are some examples in the West. This has led to the emergence of political correctness and the acceptance of difference. Disability groups prefer to view difference as desirable more than acceptable. There is evidence to suggest that difference can sometimes bring confusion due to its ambiguous nature and through the variations of choice. For instance workplace diversity has resulted in greater numbers of people with disabilities entering the labour force. In this case, diversity has been desirable and seen as progressive in western societies. Alternatively, some differences such as religious practices can be seen as undesirable. One such example is the suspicion towards Islam in the Western world or some practices of female circumcision. Here it demonstrates how confusion arises in postmodern condition as tolerance towards difference spreads in uneven directions across societies. Postmodernism and post modernization Despite having discussed above the key features of postmodernism, it remains difficult to provide a clear stand-alone description. David Lyon (1999) has provided the most palatable explanation of postmodernism, taking into account modernism. He describes postmodernism as an evolving process between modernity and postmodernity. The process could be the extension of modernity or the collapse of modernity. Lyon suggests this process can incorporate this at the same time depending on the circumstance. Moreover, it means some elements of modernity can be abandoned while others are maintained. Lyon writes that postmodernism and post-modernity need to be viewed in terms of each other. Postmodernism refers to the cultural experience, while postmodernity he argues refers to the social experience. In the case of producing, consuming and distribution of symbolic goods, Lyon writes that this process merges the boundaries between hierarchies and systems of knowledge. Lyon explains the social and the cultural cannot exist without each other. However, Lyon is one of the writers to raise the following theoretical arguments on postmodernism. Modernism : dead or alive? Some critics like Crook et al, Connor Bertens and Natoli prefer to focus on how society is not modern to give an idea of what postmodernism is. Some critics like Baudrillard and Lyotard, argue that there is a clear end to modernism and beginning to postmodernism. These writers are vague about their description of postmodernism yet seem to debate the prevalence or death of modernity. Lyotard for instance thought that modernity was dead by explaining that Truth as a condition of modernity was replaced by performativity, or usefulness, a condition of postmodernism (Connor, 1989). Connor critiqued Lyotard by arguing utility was another form of rationalisation. Beaudrillard, who focussed on symbolism and consumer culture, wrote that the end of economy symbolised the end of modernity and described that modernity is losing all its substance for the pursuit of the superficial aesthetic (Kumar, 1995). Bertens and Natoli (2002) critiqued Baudrillards predominant concern with symbols over the real and referred to his exaggerated view of postmodernism as represented by symbolism as a hyper-reality. Postmodernism or late modernity? Some writers describe society and culture as late modernity while others prefer to describe it as postmodern. It is unclear that there is a difference between the two. Kumar describes postmodenism as the effect of key changes including sensitivity to difference in society and acceptance of pathological arguments. For Kumar, the dismantling of society does not equal the end of modernity. .ucb2b008f84851ae64c8e0b4cfa96bf63 , .ucb2b008f84851ae64c8e0b4cfa96bf63 .postImageUrl , .ucb2b008f84851ae64c8e0b4cfa96bf63 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ucb2b008f84851ae64c8e0b4cfa96bf63 , .ucb2b008f84851ae64c8e0b4cfa96bf63:hover , .ucb2b008f84851ae64c8e0b4cfa96bf63:visited , .ucb2b008f84851ae64c8e0b4cfa96bf63:active { border:0!important; } .ucb2b008f84851ae64c8e0b4cfa96bf63 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ucb2b008f84851ae64c8e0b4cfa96bf63 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ucb2b008f84851ae64c8e0b4cfa96bf63:active , .ucb2b008f84851ae64c8e0b4cfa96bf63:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ucb2b008f84851ae64c8e0b4cfa96bf63 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ucb2b008f84851ae64c8e0b4cfa96bf63 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ucb2b008f84851ae64c8e0b4cfa96bf63 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ucb2b008f84851ae64c8e0b4cfa96bf63 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ucb2b008f84851ae64c8e0b4cfa96bf63:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ucb2b008f84851ae64c8e0b4cfa96bf63 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ucb2b008f84851ae64c8e0b4cfa96bf63 .ucb2b008f84851ae64c8e0b4cfa96bf63-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ucb2b008f84851ae64c8e0b4cfa96bf63:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Of Usury EssayDeconstructionist writers like Derrida and De Sassure focus on theories that fragment metanarratives or truth. Their focus is on plurality of knowledge by way of multiple interpretations of signs like those in mass media and consumer culture (Beaudrillard, 1988). In this way, it is no longer possible to utilise one narrative, as signs in consumer culture are pastiched and can provide plural meanings rather than contradictory ones. While for Baudrillard and Lyotard, plurality is the demise of the authentic and therefore the end of modernity, Kumar, describes the extension of modernity in saying the combination of many traditions to form a new, rather than rejection of the old tradition. (Kumar,1995,105) Kumar explains that it is not clear that postmodernity has begun, nor that modernity is clearly over. Rather than it being a clearly demarcated phase, it is described as unevenly loose process that is clearly happening where There is simply a more or less random directionless flux across all sections of society. (Kumar, 1995, 103). He perceives these changes to be consistent with postmodernism but realizes there is no guiding principle for the change as for example in Marxist theory and capitalism. Other key writers advocating for the relevance of modernism, are Smart, Lash Ury, Crook and Habermas. Crook (1992) critiques Habermas by arguing that we are in an advanced state of modernism or known as late modernism rather than postmodernism. He argues that if capitalism is associated with modernism, then advanced rationalisation and comodification can only mean we are in a high level of modernism. Crook prefers to sit more on the fence and although advises against nostalgia for modernism he explains it is too early to predict the postmodern condition but also premature to say modernism is over (Crook et al, 1992). Meta narratives like progress and rationality are still sought as the final end. To conclude this briefing, an understanding of postmodernism in the absence of a clearly guided definition has been provided. Potmodernism referred to the breakdown of modernity or at least the transformation of modernity. This briefing discussed that where modernism meant the embracing of universal truths like progress, reason and rationality, postmodernism could be seen in two ways; abandonment of the modern for the pursuit of a different approach or the extension of modernity. Under this scenario, I discussed the blurring of different knowledge. The question remains to be clarified as to whether western society is in a modern or postmodern reality. Given the Bush administrations post September 11 warfare, the pursuit for truth like freedom and liberty has widened the gap between modern and postmodern thinking at a global level and polarized those who believe in universal truths and those that do not.

Roman And Greek Mythology Essays - Mythological Kings, Deities

Roman And Greek Mythology Greek and Roman mythology have many similarities between them. Each type has there own set of Gods and Goddesses, although they were worshiped for similar reasons. The following will explain each God or Goddess and explain how they compare to each other. The King of Gods in Greek Mythology is known as Zeus. Zeus was the ruler of the sky, and had the power to create thunderstorms and lightning as well as earthquakes. He was the child of Cronus and Rhea. As the story goes he was their sixth child, and the father to protect him from being overthrown had eaten the five previous children. Zeus was taken to a city called Crete and hidden from his father. As Zeus grew older and learned of what happened he found a potion to make his father regurgitate the other children. Once this happened they all teamed up and killed their father. Zeus then became the ruler of Mount Olympus, and head of the new line of Gods. Jupiter was the predominant power holder of Roman Gods. He was ruler of the sky, the daylight, all the weather, and even the thunder and lightening. Jupiter helped drive back the Sabines. His temple was built in the Capitol, and newly elected counsels offered their first prayers to him. Hera was the wife and sister of Zeus, and the High Goddess of the Greeks. She was extremely jealous of the affairs that her husband was having and often tormented or harmed the mistresses he was fooling around with. Although, when she went too far, or tried to cause death, Zeus would intervene and stop her. Hera tried to ship wreak Heracles on his return from Troy, and with that Zeus had her hung by the wrists from top of the mountain with an anvil tied to each ankle. The two had four children together. Juno, Hera's counterpart, was the wife of Jupiter. Juno was the protector of women, especially those who are married. Women often gave offerings to Juno to help with their childbirth. The God of the Underworld, Hades, was the brother of Zeus. He gained Hell, as his share in conquering their father. He is most known for kidnapping his wife, Persephone, while she was picking flowers in a field. As the story goes, Hades had her eat a piece of food in the Underworld, therefore she could not live on the Earth again. Her father, Zeus, made arrangements for her to be allowed on Earth for two-thirds of the year and in the Underworld as Hade's wife for the rest of the time. This is used as the cause of spring and winter. When she returns to the surface she brings spring with her and when she returns to the Underworld she leaves winter behind her. Pluto, the Roman God of the Underworld, who's name also means rich. It reflects the rich mineral resources beneath the ground and the rich resources above the earth. In art he is shown with the Horn of Plenty. This horn is most likely why we associate the Devil, or Satan, as having a horn on top of his head. His name was thought of to be bad luck, and therefore was hardly mentioned in myths. Ares was the child of Zeus and Hera. He was the God of War. Whenever he was seen or portrayed he would be fully armed and ready for battle. Any cause to fight or go to war would bring him out and about. He was the discomfited lover of Aphrodite. Almost all of his children by mortal women were of a violent nature. Mars, The Roman God of War and Agriculture, was the second most important god after Jupiter. The month March was named after Mars, and was also the first month of the Roman calendar. March was the month when agriculture was reborn and when most people engaged in war. Mars was given his own priest and altar in Rome. The wolf and woodpecker were the sacred animals of Mars. A festival in October was held in his honor and all farmers and soldiers would lay aside their weapons and had a celebration. The Greek Goddess of Love and Beauty was Aphrodite. She was married to the Smith God, Hephaestus, but left him for the God of War. She favored the Trojans during the Trojan War. She was known to have angry mood swings and all the gods and mortals paid dearly for it. Aphrodite and Venus were counterparts

Free Essays on Political Socialization In Russia

Political socialization refers to the way that political values and ideals are formed and transmitted from one generation to the next. The majority of people acquire their first political values at an early age with some ideals evolving, and some staying the same through life. The core of these political ideals are formed through various structures and organizations such as the family, schools, religious institutions, mass media, interest groups, and political parties. In recent years Russia has practically done a 180 in terms of political organization, and even the type of government that it utilizes. As a result of this it is interesting to look at political socialization in modern Russia. By far the most influential group on a person is the family. The family is the first influence on a person, and arguably the most lasting. In theory the family can almost predetermine a person’s political future. For example, if a child is active in the family’s decision making process, this can provide skills for future political participation and competence, on the other hand if a child is completely excluded from the family decision making process, this can predispose the child to the life of a political subject. In Russia, along with almost all other countries a person’s political party or political association is the same as that of their family’s. This is a direct result of the aforementioned. The next logical place where a Russian would gain political insight would be the school system. In schools pupils are provided with concrete information about their political world and it’s institutions and relationships. In Russia children go to school at the age of 6, and attend for ten years and finish at the age of 16 or 17. If a student does not perform properly then he or she may be asked to repeat the year. School years are divided into three sub-schools, much like the U.S., primary, secondary, and high. Primary is f... Free Essays on Political Socialization In Russia Free Essays on Political Socialization In Russia Political socialization refers to the way that political values and ideals are formed and transmitted from one generation to the next. The majority of people acquire their first political values at an early age with some ideals evolving, and some staying the same through life. The core of these political ideals are formed through various structures and organizations such as the family, schools, religious institutions, mass media, interest groups, and political parties. In recent years Russia has practically done a 180 in terms of political organization, and even the type of government that it utilizes. As a result of this it is interesting to look at political socialization in modern Russia. By far the most influential group on a person is the family. The family is the first influence on a person, and arguably the most lasting. In theory the family can almost predetermine a person’s political future. For example, if a child is active in the family’s decision making process, this can provide skills for future political participation and competence, on the other hand if a child is completely excluded from the family decision making process, this can predispose the child to the life of a political subject. In Russia, along with almost all other countries a person’s political party or political association is the same as that of their family’s. This is a direct result of the aforementioned. The next logical place where a Russian would gain political insight would be the school system. In schools pupils are provided with concrete information about their political world and it’s institutions and relationships. In Russia children go to school at the age of 6, and attend for ten years and finish at the age of 16 or 17. If a student does not perform properly then he or she may be asked to repeat the year. School years are divided into three sub-schools, much like the U.S., primary, secondary, and high. Primary is f...

Food & Beverage Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Food & Beverage - Essay Example Being a consultant, I will pay 35% of the total time and energies on people development, due to the very reality that staff members are the identification and uniqueness of an organization, behavior, performance, qualification and professionalism of which means a lot to the organization. It is staff on the basis of which people visit the organization. Second priority would be given to operations department, which will take 25% of total time and energies. Like people, products are also the sign of an organization’s recognition and individuality. If clients are not satisfied with the products and services offer to them, they will never trust an organization. Moreover, if product and services are satisfactory, they will surely leave significant impact upon both sales and profit. Lastly, I will suggest equal concentration to be paid to sales and profit, which will be 20% of the total investment for each. Sales phenomenon is the department that determines future planning and strate gy making of an organization for future. Moreover, profit ultimately soars up provided customers and clients are satisfied with the performance of the staff on the one hand, and quality and excellence of the products and services on the other. Being a consultant of the food chain I aim to pay due heed to the products and services of the organization, which will surely increase the food cost from 26.5% to 31.3% over the same period. One of the main reasons behind such a sudden as well as an imperative jump in the food cost is certainly applying most hygienic products with proper sterilizing of all the crockery including dishes, glasses and cooking range etc, as well as keeping the area extremely neat and clean. Moreover, use of fresh and high meat, vegetables and fruit will also increase the expenditure of the food to be presented to the customers. In addition, presentation and

Resolution in international trade Dissertation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Resolution in international trade - Dissertation Example The research methodology used for this study will be aligned with the nature of the study, as a legal research paper. In this context, the research required for the development of this paper will have two different forms: a) literature review, i.e. review of the academic studies (books, journals and so on) published on the issues under discussion and b) case studies analysis, i.e. review of the case law related to the specific subject.Since its introduction, GATT helped towards the expansion of international trade law framework; however, through the years, the specific system was proved inadequate for the conflicts developed in international trade agreements. It was probably the fact that the international political and economic climate had changed and new needs were developed in regard to the settlement of disputes related to international trade. The above fact is made clear through the study of Davey (2006) where reference is made to the effectiveness of GATT in ‘dispute rela ted to agricultural trade products’ (Davey, 2006, p. 185). Despite the fact that GATT has been highly related to the specific sector, still its rules where not adequately enforced in disputes developed in the particular field (Davey, 2006, p. 185). Another important weakness of GATT was the fact that it did not offer ‘development-specific provisions’ – actually, it is noted that up to 1960s only two such provisions could be identified in GATT - and that its decisions ‘were taken by consensus’.

Helping Children with Learning Disabilities Essay Example for Free

Helping Children with Learning Disabilities Essay Children with learning disabilities are smart or smarter than their peers, but may have difficulty with things like reading, writing, reasoning, and organizing information by themselves. A learning disability is a lifelong issue that cannot be cured or fixed with a snap of the fingers. Children who have the right support and intervention can succeed in school. Then later they will be able to go and be successful later in life. Children with learning disabilities need the support of parents, school and their community to be successful. Parents need to be able to encourage children with their strengths, know what their weaknesses are, and be able to understand the educational system to be able to work with professionals. Learning Disabilities cannot be categorized into one diagnosis. Learning disabilities are caused by biological factors that are caused by differences in the structure and functioning of the nervous system. Many people, both in the local and professional community, use the terms handicap and disability interchangeably, but they are not. A learning disability means that preschoolers are unable to complete tasks in a certain way. Children with learning disabilities have a hard time functioning in areas such as sensory, physical, cognitive, and other areas. Handicap means that preschoolers are unable to function and cope in their environment. These children have impairments such as cerebral palsy or down syndrome. In 1991, the federal government amended the disabilities label to â€Å"Individuals with Disabilities Act† (PL 102-119). This act allowed states to be able to not identify with one of the thirteen federal disability labels, but to classify preschoolers with special needs. (Kilgo, pg 27) With the new changes professionals were able to use new terms like developmentally delayed and at risk when identifying children. Developmentally delayed is determined on the basis of various developmental assessments and/or an informed clinical opinion. Children starting at the age of three years old can now be identified for services. Delays can be expressed in a difference between a child’s chronological age and his/her performance levels. Delays occur when a child does not reach his/her developmental milestones at the expected age level or time. If a child is slightly behind it is not considered a delay until he/she are lagging in two or more areas of motor, language, social or thinking skills. Developmental delays are usually diagnosed by a doctor or medical professional based on strict guidelines and take more than one visit to diagnose. Parents or childcare providers are usually the first to notice children not progressing at the same rate as other children. Testing will help to gauge a child’s developmental level. At risk describes children with exposure to certain adverse conditions and circumstances known to have a high probability of resulting in learning and development difficulties? (Kilgo, pg 28) These children have not been identified as having a disability, but as children who may be developing conditions that will limit their success in school or lead to disabilities. There are three factors that can result in a child’s environment. The first is established risk/genetic. This could be where a child is born with cerebral palsy, Down syndrome, or spinal bifida. Biological risk means that a child has a history of pre- or post- natal conditions that heighten the chance of development. These could be conditions such as premature births, infants with low birth weights, maternal diabetes, and bacterial infections like meningitis or HIV. Environmental risks are considered biologically typical, meaning they are environmental conditions that are limiting or threating to the child’s development. All three at risk factors can result in cognitive, social, affective, and physical problems. (Kim, pg. 4) Some signs of learning disabilities in young children are: †¢ A toddler may reach developmental milestones quite slowly. †¢ The child may have trouble understanding the concept of time. Is the child confused by the use of words like tomorrow, today, and yesterday? †¢ Young children have a lot of energy, but some have an excessive amount of kinetic energy, known as hyperactivity. †¢ A child that has difficulty distinguishing right from left may have difficulty identifying words. †¢ A child with a learning disability often masters several areas, while failing in two or more areas. A child that is perceived as disobedient may actually have difficulty understanding and following instructions. Once a child has been identified as having a possible learning disability, assessments need to be completed. An assessment is the process of gathering information for the purpose of making a decision about children with known or suspected disabilities in the area of screening, diagnosis, eligibility, program planning, and/or process monitoring and evaluation. (Kilo, pg. 90) During the assessment, evaluations should be accomplished with the e goal of identifying developmentally ppropriate goals, identifying unique styles and strengths, looking at parent goals and outcomes for their children, reinforcing family’s competence and worth, and creating a sense of shared commitment between families, schools, and professionals. Families possess a wealth of information and should play a very active role in the decision making, planning, and evaluations of their children. Schools are required to foster a child’s education, offering and supporting the needs of each child through a series of individualized instructions and interventions. School districts must provide documentation stating that the student has received the required instruction by qualified personnel. These interventions help teachers and staff to educate and foster the needs of children with learning disabilities. Assessments are an ongoing process. The initial assessment should be used to screen, diagnose, and check for eligibility for services. Ongoing assessments are to focus on a child’s skill level, needs, background, experiences, and interests, as well as the family’s preferences and priorities. Over the years practice has shown that there is a link between assessments and curriculum to provide for the needs of the child. It is important to keep records of a child’s progress. A very useful way is through portfolio assessments. These portfolios can be considered a looking glass into a child’s growth. Portfolios also help teachers and team members to keep observations and comments about a child’s activities and behaviors. The information collected can help meet many of the required criteria for planning and monitoring. An important responsibility of an educator is to have an environment that will both nurture and foster learning. When designing an environment childcare providers should use best practice guidelines from places like National Association of Education of Young Child (NAEYC) and National Association of Family Childcare (NAFCC). Environments should look at available space, age of children, visual appeal, safety and health, and organization. (Perri Klass, pg. 46) Always remember that environments exert powerful influences on children and help to play a vital role in children’s lives. Activity areas should include gross- motor, quiet/calm, discover, dramatic, therapeutic, and arts and crafts areas. Rooms should not have furniture that is used to separate centers or activities but should use things like lower lightening, parachutes hanging from the ceiling and area rugs to help children understand the use of different centers. The main goal of childcare providers and educators is to provide the best possible services for children with learning disabilities by providing services â€Å"as early and comprehensively as possible in the least restrictive setting†. Services and interventions should be supported in the most natural environments that will include the child’s primary care giver. Individual Education Plans (IEP) plays a large role in the education process of children with learning disabilities. These IEP’s require professionals, parents, and caregivers to work together as a team. They hold teams to accountability standards for the care of children with disabilities. A child’s IEP helps to furnish an instructional direction, sort of like a blueprint of care, to measure the effectiveness and progress of children. If an IEP is carefully written and appropriate goals are set, it will provide special education services to a child that will be reflected throughout his/her life. In the field of early childhood education, the definition of special needs has drastically changed for children with learning disabilities over the years. We live in a very diverse society of languages, foods, music, values and religious beliefs that brings us the strengths of our nation. Every day the makeup of our society changes and so does the needs of our children, especially those of children with learning disabilities. Our community is seeing a growing need for services for children with learning disabilities. Young children with learning disabilities need to receive services at the earliest age possible. Parents need to remember that learning disabilities do not go away overnight and for some children it takes years of recognizing, expressing, thinking, and problem solving to succeed at being the young adult that they are meant to be.

The Split Brain: Some Thoughts :: Biology Essays Research Papers

The Split Brain: Some Thoughts "Left, right, left, right--the marching song of the two-mind movement. To hear them talk, you'd think that everyone had a second mind, suppressed by the first. That the vocal left brain dominated the poor artistic right brain. Preventing it from getting a creative thought in edgewise. Soon there will be a consciousness raising movement: Stop referring to the left cerebral hemisphere as the "dominant" one. Invent a more egalitarian term like co-chairperson. Co-chairhemisphere?" William H. Calvin, "Left Brain, Right Brain: Science or the New Phrenology." The brain is separated into two hemispheres in your brain, the right and the left. At first glance these hemispheres appear to be mirror images of one another, but on closer observations the two hemispheres have highly specialized regions that serve differing functions (1). In general, the right hemisphere interprets information and controls actions of the left side of the body. The left hemisphere interprets information and controls actions of the right side of the body. A thick band of fiber called the corpus callosum connects the two hemispheres. Evidently if the connection between the hemispheres is severed, a once common practice to relieve epileptic attacks, sensory information cannot pass to the correct region of the brain in order for a corresponding response to be made (2). Thus, your brain is SPLIT...! To me the split brain theory seemed a bizarre notion. Isn't my brain a whole- controlled by the centrally located "little man" who receives my thoughts, processes and multiple functions of my brain? If this is true how could the brain be split into two? Do you have two "yous" then? The split brain effect was first discovered by Roger Sperry and Ronald Meyers in the early 1960s (3). Meyers and Sperry showed that when the cat had its optic chiasm and corpus callosum severed, two independent learning centers were established - one in each hemisphere of the cat's brain. If the cat had its right eye open and its left eye covered and learned to make a simple conditioned response, it was unable to make the same response when the right eye was covered and the left eye was open. It was as if the learning was unable to be communicated to the other side of the brain (2); thus, it was obvious that information available to one side remained off-limits to the other.

Romeo and Juliet Film and Text Analysis

Phonology What is phonology? Phonology is the study of the sound system of languages. It is a huge area of language theory and it is difficult to do more on a general language course than have an outline knowledge of what it includes. In an exam, you may be asked to comment on a text that you are seeing for the first time in terms of various language descriptions, of which phonology may be one. At one extreme, phonology is concerned with anatomy and physiology – the organs of speech and how we learn to use them. At another extreme, phonology shades into socio-linguistics as we consider social attitudes to features of sound such as accent and intonation. And part of the subject is concerned with finding objective standard ways of recording speech, and representing this symbolically. For some kinds of study – perhaps a language investigation into the phonological development of young children or regional variations in accent, you will need to use phonetic transcription to be credible. But this is not necessary in all kinds of study – in an exam, you may be concerned with stylistic effects of sound in advertising or literature, such as assonance, rhyme or onomatopoeia – and you do not need to use special phonetic symbols to do this. The physics and physiology of speech Man is distinguished from the other primates by having the apparatus to make the sounds of speech. Of course most of us learn to speak without ever knowing much about these organs, save in a vague and general sense – so that we know how a cold or sore throat alters our own performance. Language scientists have a very detailed understanding of how the human body produces the sounds of speech. Leaving to one side the vast subject of how we choose particular utterances and identify the sounds we need, we can think rather simply of how we use our lungs to breathe out air, produce vibrations in the larynx and then use our tongue, teeth and lips to modify the sounds. The diagram below shows some of the more important speech organs. Phonology This kind of diagram helps us to understand what we observe in others but is less useful in understanding our own speech. Scientists can now place small cameras into the mouths of experimental subjects, and observe some of the physical movements that accompany speech. But most of us move our vocal organs by reflexes or a sense of the sound we want to produce, and are not likely to benefit from watching movement in the vocal fold. The diagram is a simplified cross-section through the human head – which we could not see in reality in a living speaker, though a simulation might be instructive. But we do observe some external signs of speech sounds apart from what we hear. A few people have the ability to interpret most of a speaker’s utterances from lip-reading. But many more have a sense of when the lip-movement does or does not correspond to what we hear – we notice this when we watch a feature film with dubbed dialogue, or a TV broadcast where the sound is not synchronized with what we see. The diagram can also prove useful in conjunction with descriptions of sounds – for example indicating where the airflow is constricted to produce fricatives, whether on the palate, the alveolar ridge, the teeth or the teeth and lips together. Speech therapists have a very detailed working knowledge of the physiology of human speech, and of exercises and remedies to overcome difficulties some of us encounter in speaking, where these have physical causes. An understanding of the anatomy is also useful to various kinds of expert who train people to use their voices in special or unusual ways. These would include singing teachers and voice coaches for actors, as well as the even more specialized coaches who train actors to produce the speech sounds of hitherto unfamiliar varieties of English or other languages. At a more basic level, my French teacher at school insisted that we (his pupils) could produce certain vowel sounds only with our mouths more open than we would ever need to do while speaking English. And a literally stiff upper lip is a great help if one wishes to mimic the speech sounds of Queen Elizabeth II.  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology So what happens? Mostly we use air that is moving out of our lungs (pulmonic egressive air) to speak. We may pause while breathing in, or try to use the ingressive air – but this is likely to produce quiet speech, which is unclear to our listeners. (David Crystal notes how the normally balanced respiratory cycle is altered by speech, so that we breathe out slowly, using the air for speech, and breathe in swiftly, in order to keep talking). In languages other than English, speakers may also use non-pulmonic sound, such as clicks (found in southern Africa) or glottalic sounds (found worldwide). In the larynx, the vocal folds set up vibrations in the egressive air. The vibrating air passes through further cavities which can modify the sound and finally are articulated by the passive (immobile) articulators – the hard palate, the alveolar ridge and the upper teeth – and the active (mobile) articulators. These are the pharynx, the velum (or soft palate), the jaw and lower teeth, the lips and, above all, the tongue. This is so important and so flexible an organ, that language scientists identify different regions of the tongue by name, as these are associated with particular sounds. Working outwards these are: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ the back – opposite the soft palate the centre – opposite the meeting point of hard and soft palate the front – opposite the hard palate the blade – the tapering area facing the ridge of teeth the tip – the extreme end of the tongue The first three of these (back, centre and front) are known together as the dorsum (which is Latin for backbone or spine) Phonology, phonemes and phonetics You may have known for some time that the suffix –phone is to do with sounds. Think, for instance, of telephone, microphone, gramophone and xylophone. The morpheme comes from Greek phonema, which means a sound. †¢ †¢ Telephone means â€Å"distant sound† Microphone means â€Å"small sound† (because it sends an input to an amplifier which in turn drives loudspeakers – so the original sound is small compared to the output sound) Gramophone was originally a trade name . It comes from inverting the original form, phonograph (=sound-writing) – so called because the sound caused a needle to trace a pattern on a wax cylinder. The process is reversed for playing the sound back Xylophone means â€Å"wood sound† (because the instrument is one of very few where the musical note is produced simply by making wood resonate) †¢ The fundamental unit of grammar is a morpheme. A basic unit of written language is a grapheme. And the basic unit of sound is a phoneme. However, this is technically what Professor Crystal describes as â€Å"the smallest contrastive unit† and it is highly useful to you in explaining things – but strictly speaking may not exist in real spoken language use. That is, almost anything you say is a continuum and you rarely assemble a series of discrete sounds into a connected whole. (It is possible to do this with synthesised speech, as used by Professor Stephen Hawking – but the result is so different from naturally occurring speech that we can recognize it instantly. And there is no perfect or single right way to say anything – just as well because we can never exactly reproduce a previous performance.  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology However, in your comments on phonology, you will certainly want sometimes to focus on single phonemes or small sequences of phonemes. A phoneme is a sound segment of words or syllables. Quite a good way to understand how it may indicate meaning is to consider how replacing it with another phoneme will change the word – so if we replace the middle sound in bad we can make bawd, bed, bid, bird and bud. In two cases here one letter is replaced with two but in all these cases it is a single vowel sound that changes. ) The first people to write in English used an existing alphabet – the Roman alphabet, which was itself adapted from the Greek alphabet for writing in Latin. (In the Roman Empire, Latin was the official language of government and administration, and especially of the army but in the eastern parts of the empire Greek was the official language, and in Rome Greek was spoken as widely as Latin. Because these first writers of English (Latin-speaking Roman monks) had more sounds than letters, they used the same letters to represent different sounds – perhaps making the assumption that the reader would recognize the word, and supply the appropriate sounds. It would be many years before anyone would think it possible to have more consistent spelling, and this has never been a realistic option for writers of English, though spelling has changed over time. And, in any case, the sounds of Old English are not exactly the same as the sounds of modern English. As linguists have become aware of more and more languages, many with sounds never heard in English, they have tried to create a comprehensive set of symbols to correspond to features of sound – vowels, consonants, clicks and glottalic sounds and non-segmental or suprasegmental features, such as stress and tone. Among many schemes used by linguists one has perhaps more authority than most, as it is the product of the International Phonetic Association (IPA). In the table below, you will see the phonetic characters that correspond to the phonemes used in normal spoken English. To give examples is problematic, as no two speakers will produce the same sound. In the case of the vowels and a few consonants, the examples will not match the sounds produced by all speakers – they reflect the variety of accent known as Received Pronunciation or RP. Note that RP is not specific to any region, but uses more of the sounds found in the south and midlands than in the north. It is a socially prestigious accent, favoured in greater or less degree by broadcasters, civil servants, barristers and people who record speaking clock messages. It is not fixed and has changed measurably in the last 50 years. But to give one example, the sound represented by ? is not common to all UK native speakers. In many parts of London and the south-east of England the sound represented by f will be substituted. So, in an advertisement, the mother-in-law of Vinnie Jones (former soccer player for Wimbledon and Wales; now an actor) says: â€Å"I fought ‘e was a big fug† (/a? f t i? w? z ? b? g fug/). You may also wonder what has happened to the letter x. This is used in English to represent two consonant sounds, those of k and s or of k and z. In phonetic transcription these symbols will be used. Consonant and vowel each have two related but distinct meanings in English. In writing of phonology, you need to make the distinction clear. When you were younger you may have learned that b,c,d,f and so on are consonants while a,e,i,o,u are vowels – and you may have wondered about y. In this case consonants and vowels denote the letters that commonly represent the relevant sounds. Phonologists are interested in vowel and consonant sounds and the phonetic symbols that represent these (including vowel and consonant letters). It may be wise for you to use the words consonant and vowel (alone) to denote the sounds. But it is better to use an unambiguous phrase – and write or speak about consonant or vowel sounds, consonant or vowel letters and consonant or vowel symbols. In most words these sounds can be identified, but there are some cases where we move from one vowel to another to create an effect that is like neither – and these are diphthongs. We also have some triphthongs – where three vowel sounds come in succession in words such as fire, power and sure. (But this depends on the speaker – many of us alter the sounds so that we say â€Å"our† as if it were are. For convenience you may prefer the term vowel glides – and say that â€Å"fine† and â€Å"boy† contain two-vowel glides while â€Å"fire† may contain a three-vowel glide.  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology IPA symbols for the sounds of English The examples show the letters in bold that correspond to the sound that they i llustrate. You will find guidance below on how to use these symbols in electronic documents. The IPA distributes audio files in analog and digital form, with specimen pronunciations of these sounds. Consonants – pip, pot p b – bat, bug t – tell, table d – dog, dig k – cat, key g – get, gum f – fish, ph phone v – van, vat ? – th thick, th thump, faith th ? – th these, th there, smooth th s – sat, sit z – zebra, zap ? – sh ship ? – treasure, leisure s s h – hop, hut t? – ch chip dge, dge d? – lodg judg dg dg m – man, mumm mmy mm n – man, pan n n ng, ng ? – sing wrong ng l – let, lips r – rub, ran w – wait, worm j – yet, yacht Short vowels ? – bit, silly i i ? – bet, hea e ead ea ? – cat, dad a a ? – dog, rotten o o ? – cut, nut u u ? – put, soo u oot oo ? – about, clever er Long vowels i? – crea eam, see een ea ee bur fir urn, ir irm ur – har far ard, ar ar – cor fau orn, au aun or u? – boo glue oob, ue oo Diphthongs a? – spice, pie i ie – wai fate ait, a ai – toy joy oy, oy oy – oa oats, note o a? – clow vow own, ow ow – bor ored, pour oured or our – dee pie eer, ie ier ee – hai bea air, ea ear ai – cur fue ure, ue uel ur  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology A phoneme is a speech sound that helps us construct meaning. That is, if we replace it with another sound (where this is possible) we get a new meaning or no meaning at all. If I replace the initial consonant (/r/) from rubble, I can get double or Hubble (astronomer for whom the space telescope is named) or meaningless forms (as regards the lexicon of standard English) like fubble and wubble. The same thing happens if I change the vowel and get rabble, rebel, Ribble (an English river) and the nonsense form robble. (I have used the conventional spelling of rebel here, but to avoid confusion should perhaps use phonetic transcription, so that replacements would always appear in the same position as the character they replace. But what happens when a phoneme is adapted to the spoken context in which it occurs, in ways that do not alter the meaning either for speaker or hearer. Rather than say these are different phonemes that share the same meaning we use the model of allophones, which are variants of a phoneme. Thus if we isolate the l sound in the initial position in â€Å"lick† and in the terminal position in â€Å"ball†, we should be able t o hear that the sound is (physically) different as is the way our speech organs produce it. Technically, in the second case, the back of the tongue is raised towards the velum or soft palate. The initial l sound is called clear l, while the terminal l sound is sometimes called a dark l. When we want to show the detail of phonetic variants or allophones we enclose the symbols in square brackets whereas in transcribing sounds from a phonological viewpoint we use slant lines. So, using the IPA transcription [l] is clear l, while [? ] is dark l. If this is not clear think: am I only describing a sound (irrespective of how this sound fits into a system, has meaning and so on)? If so, use square brackets. Am I trying to show how the sound is part of a wider system (irrespective of how exactly it sounds in a given instance)? If so, use slant brackets. So long as we need a form of transcription, we will rely on the IPA scheme. But increasingly it is possible to use digital recording and reproduction to produce reference versions of sounds. This would not, of course, prevent change in the choice of which particular sounds to use in a given context. When people wonder about harass (h? r? s) or harass (h? r? s) they usually are able to articulate either, and are concerned about which reveals them as more or less educated in the use of the â€Å"proper† form. For your information, the stress historically falls on the first syllable, to rhyme with embarrass – thus in both Pocket Oxford [UK, 1969] and Funk & Wagnalls New Practical Standard [US, 1946]. The fashion for â€Å"hu-rass† is found on both sides of the Atlantic and we should not credit it to, or blame it on, US speakers of English. ) Phonologists also refer to segments. A segment is â€Å"a discrete unit that can be identified in a stream of speech†, according to Professor Crystal. In English the segments would correspond to vowel sounds and consonant sounds, say. This is a clear metaphor if we think of fruit – the number of segments varies, but is finite in a whole fruit. So some languages have few segments and others many – from 11 in Rotokas and Mura to 141 in ! Xu. The term may be most helpful in indicating what non-segmental or supra-segmental (above the segments) features of spoken language are.  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology The sounds of English Vowels English has twelve vowel sounds. In the table above they are divided into seven short and five long vowels. An alternative way of organizing them is ccording to where (in the mouth) they are produced. This method allows us to describe them as front, central and back. We can qualify them further by how high the tongue and lower jaw are when we make these vowel sounds, and by whether our lips are rounded or spread, and finally by whether they are short or long. This scheme shows the following arrangement: Front vowels â⠂¬ ¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ /i? / – cream, seen (long high front spread vowel) /? /- bit, silly (short high front spread vowel) /? / – bet, head (short mid front spread vowel); this may also be shown by the symbol /e/ /? – cat, dad (short low front spread vowel); this may also be shown by /a/ Central vowels †¢ †¢ †¢ / /- burn, firm (long mid central spread vowel); this may also be shown by the symbol / / /? / – about, clever (short mid central spread vowel); this is sometimes known as schwa, or the neutral vowel sound – it never occurs in a stressed position. /? / – cut, nut (short low front spread vowel); this vowel is quite uncommon among speakers in the Midlands and further north in Britain Back vowels †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ /u? / – boob, glue (long high back rounded vowel) /? – put, soot (short high back rounded vowel); also shown by /u/ / / – corn, faun (long mid back rounded vowel) also shown by /o? / /? /- dog, rotten (short low back rounded vowel) also shown by /o/ / / – hard, far (long low back spread vowel) We can also arrange the vowels in a table or even depict them against a cross-section of the human mouth. Here is an example of a simple table: Front High Mid Low Central Back ? i? ? ? ? ? ? u? ?  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology Diphthongs Diphthongs are sounds that begin as one vowel and end as another, while gliding between them. For this reason they are sometimes described as glide vowels. How many are there? Almost every modern authority says eight – but they do not all list the same eight (check this for yourself). Simeon Potter, in Our Language (Potter, S, [1950] Chapter VI, Sounds and Spelling, London, Penguin) says there are nine – and lists those I have shown in the table above, all of which I have found in the modern reference works. The one most usually omitted is / / as in bored. Many speakers do not use this diphthong, but use the same vowel in poured as in fraud – but it is alive and well in the north of Britain. Potter notes that all English diphthongs are falling – that is the first element is stressed more than the second. Other languages have rising diphthongs, where the second element is stressed, as in Italian uomo (man) and uovo (egg). Consonants Some authorities claim one or two fewer consonants than I have shown above, regarding those with double symbols (/t? / and /d? /) as â€Å"diphthong consonants† in Potter’s phrase. The list omits one sound that is not strictly a consonant but works like one. The full IPA list of phonetic symbols includes some for non-pulmonic consonants (not made with air coming from the lungs), click and glottal sounds. In some varieties of English, especially in the south of Britain (but the sound has migrated north) we find the glottal plosive or glottal stop, shown by the symbol /? / (essentially a question mark without the dot at the tail). This sound occurs in place of /t/ for some speakers – so /bot? l/ or /botl/ (bottle) become /bo l/ or /bo? l/. We form consonants by controlling or impeding the egressive (outward) flow of air. We do this with the articulators – from the glottis, past the velum, the hard palate and alveolar ridge and the tongue, to the teeth and lips. The sound results from three things: †¢ †¢ †¢ Voicing All vowels must be voiced – they are caused by vibration in the vocal cords. But consonants may be voiced or not. Some of the consonant sounds of English come in pairs that differ in being voiced or not – in which case they are described as voiceless or unvoiced. So b is voiced and p is the unvoiced consonant in one pair, while voiced g and voiceless k form another pair. We can explain the consonant sounds by the place where the articulation principally occurs or by the kinds of articulation that occurs there. The first scheme gives us this arrangement: voicing – causing the vocal cords to vibrate where the articulation happens how the articulation happens – how the airflow is controlled  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology Articulation described by region †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Glottal articulation – articulation by the glottis. We use this for one consonant in English. This is /h/ in initial position in house or hope. Velar articulation – we do this with the back of the tongue against the velum. We use it for initial hard /g/ (as in golf) and for final /? / (as in gong). Palatal articulation – we do this with the front of the tongue on the hard palate. We use it for /d? / (as in jam) and for /? / (as in sheep or sugar). Alveolar articulation – we do this with the tongue blade on the alveolar ridge. We use it for /t/ (as in teeth), /d/ (as in dodo) /z/ (as in zebra) /n/ (as in no) and /l/ (as in light). Dental articulation – we do this with the tip of the tongue on the back of the upper front teeth. We use it for /? / (as in think) and /? / (as in that). This is one form of articulation that we can observe and feel ourselves doing. †¢ †¢ Labio-dental articulation – we do this with the lower lip and upper front teeth. We use it for /v/ (as in vampire). Labial articulation – we do this with the lips for /b/ (as in boat) and /m/ (as in most). Where we use two lips (as in English) this is bilabial articulation. Articulation described by manner This scheme gives us a different arrangement into stop (or plosive) consonants, affricates, fricatives, nasal consonants, laterals and approximants. Stop consonants (because the airflow is stopped) or plosive consonants (because it is subsequently released, causing an outrush of air and a burst of sound) are: o o o †¢ †¢ Bilabial voiced /b/ (as in boat) and voiceless /p/ (as in post) Alveolar voiced /d/ (as in dad) and voiceless /t/ (as in tap) Velar voiced /g/ (as in golf) and voiceless /k/ as in (cow) Affric ates are a kind of stop consonant, where the expelled air causes friction rather than plosion. They are palatal /t? / (as in cheat) and palatal /d? / (as in jam) Fricatives come from restricting, but not completely stopping, the airflow. The air passes through a narrow space and the sound arises from the friction this produces. They come in voiced and unvoiced pairs: o o o o Labio-dental voiced /v/ (as in vole) and unvoiced /f/ (as in foal) Dental voiced /? / (as in those) and unvoiced /? / (as in thick) Alveolar voiced /z/ (as in zest) and unvoiced /s/ (as in sent) Palatal voiced /? / (as in the middle of leisure) and unvoiced /? / (as at the end of trash) †¢ Nasal consonants involve closing the articulators but lowering the uvula, which normally closes off the route to the nose, through which the air escapes. There are three nasal consonants in English: o o o Bilabial /m/ (as in mine) Alveolar /n/ (as in nine) Velar /? / (as at the end of gong).  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology †¢ †¢ Lateral consonants allow the air to escape at the sides of the tongue. In English there is only one such sound, which is alveolar /l/ (as at the start of lamp) Approximants do not impede the flow of air. They are all voiced but are counted as consonants chiefly because of how they function in syllables. They are: o o o Bilabial /w/ (as in water) Alveolar /r/ (as in road) Palatal /j/ (as in yet) Syllables When you think of individual sounds, you may think of them in terms of syllables. These are units of phonological organization and smaller than words. Alternatively, think of them as units of rhythm. Although they may contain several sounds, they combine them in ways that create the effect of unity. Thus splash is a single syllable but it combines three consonants, a vowel, and a final consonant /spl+? +? /. Some words have a single syllable – so they are monosyllables or monosyllabic. Others have more than one syllable and are polysyllables or polysyllabic. Sometimes you may see a word divided into its syllables, but this may be an artificial exercise, since in real speech the sounds are continuous. In some cases it will be impossible to tell whether a given consonant was ending one syllable of beginning another. It is possible, for example, to pronounce lamppost so that there are two /p/ sounds in succession with some interval between them. But many native English speakers will render this as /l? m-p st/ or /l? m-p sd/. Students of language may find it helpful to be able to identify individual syllables in explaining pronunciation and language change – one of the things you may need to do is explain which are the syllables that are stressed in a particular word or phrase. Suprasegmentals In written English we use punctuation to signal some things like emphasis, and the speed with which we want our readers to move at certain points. In spoken English we use sounds in ways that do not apply to individual segments but to stretches of spoken discourse from words to phrases, clauses and sentences. Such effects are described as non-segmental or suprasegmental – or, using the adjective in a plural nominal (noun) form, simply suprasegmentals. Among these effects are such things as stress, intonation, tempo and rhythm – which collectively are known as prosodic features. Other effects arise from altering the quality of the voice, making it breathy or husky and changing what is sometimes called the timbre – and these are paralinguistic features. Both of these kinds of effect may signal meaning. But they do not do so consistently from one language to another, and this an cause confusion to students learning a second language.  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology Prosodic features †¢ Stress or loudness – increasing volume is a simple way of giving emphasis, and this is a crude measure of stress. But it is usually combined with other things like changes in tone and tempo. We use stress to convey some kind s of meaning (semantic and pragmatic) such as urgency or anger or for such things as imperatives. Intonation – you may be familiar in a loose sense with the notion of tone of voice. We use varying levels of pitch in sequences (contours or tunes) to convey particular meanings. Falling and rising intonation in English may signal a difference between statement and question. Younger speakers of English may use rising (question) intonation without intending to make the utterance a question. Tempo – we speak more or less quickly for many different reasons and purposes. Occasionally it may be that we are adapting our speech to the time we have in which to utter it (as, for example, in a horse-racing commentary). But mostly tempo reflects some kinds of meaning or attitude – so we give a truthful answer to a question, but do so rapidly to convey our distraction or irritation. Rhythm – patterns of stress, tempo and pitch together create a rhythm. Some kinds of formal and repetitive rhythm are familiar from music, rap, poetry and even chants of soccer fans. But all speech has rhythm – it is just that in spontaneous utterances we are less likely to hear regular or repeating patterns. †¢ †¢ †¢ Paralinguistic features How many voices do we have? We are used to â€Å"putting on† silly voices for comic effects or in play. We may adapt our voices for speaking to babies, or to suggest emotion, excitement or desire. These effects are familiar in drama, where the use of a stage whisper may suggest something clandestine and conspiratorial. Nasal speech may suggest disdain, though it is easily exaggerated for comic effect (as by the late Kenneth Williams in many Carry On films). Such effects are sometimes described as timbre or voice quality. We all may use them sometimes but they are particularly common among entertainers such as actors or comedians. This is not surprising, as they practise using their voices in unusual ways, to represent different characters. The performers in the BBC’s Teletubbies TV programme use paralinguistic features to suggest the different characters of Tinky-Winky, Dipsy, La-La and Po.  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology Accent Everyone’s use of the sound system is unique and personal. And few of us use sounds consistently in all contexts – we adapt to different situations. We rarely adapt our sounds alone – more likely we mind our language in the popular sense, by attending to our lexical choices, grammar and phonology. ) Most human beings adjust their speech to resemble that of those around them. This is very easy to demonstrate, as when some vogue words from broadcasting surf a wave of popularity before settling down in the language more modestly or passing out of use again. This is particularly true of sounds, in the sense that some identifiable groups of people share (with some individual variation) a collection of sounds that are not found elsewhere, and these are accents. We think of accents as marking out people by geographical region and, to a less degree, by social class or education. So we might speak of a Scouse (Liverpool), Geordie (Newcastle) or Brummie (Birmingham) accent. These are quite general descriptions – within each of these cities we would differentiate further. And we should also not confuse real accent features in a given region with stereotyped and simplified versions of these which figure in (or disfigure) TV drama – Emmerdale, Brookside, Coronation Street and Albert Square are not reliable sources for anything we might want o know about their real-world originals. And the student who hoped to study the speech of people in Peckham by watching episodes of John Sullivan’s situation comedy Only Fools and Horses was deeply misguided. Thinking of social class, we might speak of a public school accent (stiff upper lip and cut glass vowels). But we do not observe occupational accents and we are unlikely to speak of a baker’s, soldier’s or accountant’s accent (whereas we might study their special uses of lexis and grammar). This is not the place to study in detail the causes of such accents or, for example, how they are changing. Language researchers may wish to record regional variant forms and their frequency. In Britain today (perhaps because of the influence of broadcasting) we can observe sound features moving from one region to another (like the glottal stop which is now common in the north of England), while also recording how other features of accent are not subject to this kind of change. Studying phonology alone will not answer such questions. But it gives you the means to identify specific phonetic features of accent and record them objectively.  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology Received Pronunciation Received Pronunciation (or RP) is a special accent – a regionally neutral accent that is used as a standard for broadcasting and some other kinds of public speaking. It is not fixed – you can hear earlier forms of RP in historical broadcasts, such as newsreel films from the Second World War. Queen Elizabeth II has an accent st close to the RP of her own childhood, but not very close to the RP of the 21 century. RP excites powerful feelings of admiration and repulsion. Some see it as a standard or the correct form of spoken English, while others see its use (in broadcasting, say) as an affront to the dignity of their own region. Its merit lies in its being more widely understood by a national and international audience than any regional accent. Non-native speakers often want to learn RP, rather than a regional accent of English. RP exists but no-one is compelled to use it. But if we see it as a reference point, we can decide how far we want to use the sounds of our region where these differ from the RP standard. And its critics may make a mistake in supposing all English speakers even have a regional identity – many people are geographically mobile, and do not stay for long periods in any one place. RP is also a very loose and flexible standard. It is not written in a book (though the BBC does give its broadcasters guides to pronunciation) and does not prescribe such things as whether to stress the first or second syllable in research. You will hear it on all the BBC’s national radio channels, to a greater or less degree. On Radio 3 you will perhaps hear the most conservative RP, while Radio 5 will give you a more contemporary version with more regional and class variety – but these are very broad generalizations, and refer mainly to the presenters, newsreaders, continuity announcers and so on. RP is used as a standard in some popular language reference works. For example, the Oxford Guide to the English Language (Weiner, E [1984], Pronunciation, p. 45, Book Club Associates/OUP, London) has this useful description of RP: â€Å"The aim of recommending one type of pronunciation rather than another, or of giving a word a recommended spoken form, naturally implies the existence of a standard. There are of course many varieties of English, even within the limits of the British Isles, but it is not the business of this section to describe them. The treatment here is based upon Received Pronunciation (RP), namely ‘the pronunciation of that variety of British English widely considered to be least regional, being originally that used by educated speakers in southern England. ’ This is not to suggest that other varieties are inferior; rather, RP is here taken as a neutral national standard, just as it is in its use in broadcasting or in the teaching of English as a foreign language. † Accent and social class Accent is certainly related to social class. This is a truism – because accent is one of the things that we use as an indicator of social class. For a given class, we can express this positively or negatively. As regards the highest social class, positively we can identify features of articulation – for certain sounds, upper class speakers do not open or move the lips as much as other speakers of English. Negatively, we can identify such sounds as the glottal stop as rare among, and untypical of, speakers from this social class. Alternatively we can look at vowel choices or preferences. For example, the upper classes for long used the vowel /? / in cases where /? / is standard – thus Coventry would be /k? v? ntri? /. C. S. Lewis in The Great Divorce depicts a character who pronounces God as â€Å"Gud† – â€Å" ‘Would to God’ he continued, but he was now pronouncing it Gud†¦Ã¢â‚¬  We may think of dropping or omitting consonants as a mark of the lower social classes and uneducated people. But dropping of terminal g – or rather substituting /n/ for /? / was until recently a mark of the upper class â€Å"toff†, who would enjoy, huntin’, fishin’ and shootin’. We can find a celebrated literary example in Dorothy L. Sayers’ Lord Peter Wimsey. Among real life speakers in whom I have observed this tendency I would identify the late Sir Alf Ramsey. I do not know whether Alf Ramsey, who managed the England football team, was brought up to speak in this way or acquired the habit later. ) Investigating the connection can be challenging, however, since social class is an artificial construct. Assuming that you have found a way to identify yo ur subjects as belonging to some definable social group, then you can study vowel choices or frequencies. Even the most cursory attention tells us that the Queen has distinct speech sounds. But can we explain them in detail? Does she share them with other members of her family? Do other speakers share them?  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology Pronunciation and prescription The English Language List is an Internet discussion forum for English language teachers. Recently a student, not a native speaker but clearly a very competent writer of English, asked where he could get help to learn to speak in a standard British accent. Many of the responses came from people who were not answering his question but trying to persuade him to stick with his current accent (which he felt would disadvantage him in his business career). Yet we are not disparaging regional accents when we try to learn the neutral and prestigious standard form. (What the discussion never really revealed was how many of the list members would identify themselves as RP speakers. ) The prescriptive tradition in English grammar was unscientific and perhaps harmful. But setting down authoritative standard forms is not always so unwise. In spelling they are useful, and the same may be true of pronunciation. Dictionaries do not compel the reader to learn and use the pronunciations they show – but they do give a representation of the pronunciation according to RP. Some show variant pronunciations as well as the principal RP form. If you are a student (or even a teacher) you may find RP an unfamiliar accent – maybe you can see that the phonetic transcription indicates a pronunciation different from the one you normally use. No one is forcing you to change your own speech sounds, in which your sense of identity may be profoundly located. But you can become aware that the local norm is not the universal standard. Now that English is an international language, its development is certainly not controlled by what happens in the UK. So British RP may cease to be a useful standard for learners of English. Increasingly, language learners favour a mid-Atlantic accent, which shares features of British RP and the speech of the eastern USA. Language acquisition Very young children do not produce the sounds they will use as adults partly because they are unable to form them (physically their speech organs have not developed fully) and partly because they may not know exactly what the sound is that they wish to produce. Children may also be less subtle in controlling the flow of egressive air, so that they will continue speaking, rather than pause briefly, while drawing more air in. Young children may have a sense of stressed syllables as more important – so they may omit unstressed elements before or after. So, for example, a child may ask for a ‘nana rather than a banana. (Alternatively, the child may know that there is some repetition of sound here, but limit it to two syllables. ) I am supposing that the non-standard form is spoken by a child, but perhaps repeated back by adults. But one often observes adults (unhelpfully) using what they suppose to be an easier form of a word. On the other hand, some children have resisted this tendency. Though they may not articulate a word in full or exactly, they can recognize it as an incomplete or mistaken form when an adult repeats it back to them. We see this in this exchange between an adult and a four year old, recorded by George Keith and John Shuttleworth: Adult: What do you want to be when you grow up? Child: A dowboy. Adult: So you want to be a dowboy, eh? Child: No! Not a dowboy, a dowboy! The child cannot articulate the /k/ initial sound but knows that what he hears from the adult is not the form of the word he is used to hearing, so protests. Since children learn by imitation of examples it may be helpful when they begin formal education to give them such examples, but not by continually rebuking them for saying things â€Å"wrongly†. Children do not learn to articulate all sounds at the same stage in their development. Teachers of children in early years (nursery and reception) classes should be able to identify the few cases where there is a disorder or problem for which some specialist intervention is appropriate.  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology Language change Change happens in language – and the sounds of English are not exempt. Of course, basic sounds do not change in the sense that the phonemes represented in the IPA transcription will not go away. And it is rare, but not impossible, for speakers of a given language to begin to use phonemes they did not use before. Thus, most English speakers faced with French –ogne (as in Boulogne or Dordogne) anglicise to Boloyn (/b? l n/). And Welsh double l in initial position (as in Llanfair and many other place names) they sound simply as /l/ rather than a voiceless unilateral l. What does change is the choice of which sound to use in a given context – though choice may suggest that this is voluntary whereas the change normally happens unnoticed. At a very simple level we can see, from rhymes in poetry that no longer work, that one or more words has acquired a new standard pronunciation. So John Donne writes (1571-1631) â€Å"And find/What wind/Serves to advance an honest mind†. We have retained the vowel sound in wind (verb, as in wind up) but not in wind (noun, as in north wind). We can still observe vowel change. In my own lifetime envelope was pronounced with the initial vowel /? (as if it were onvelope). This pronunciation is becoming more rare, and persists mostly among older speakers. Turquoise was once commonly sounded as in French /t kw? z/ – but now it is more or less uniformly /t k z/ or /t k s/ (perhaps by analogy with tortoise). Far more common are changes in stress patterns. So research (more or less universal in the UK when I was a child) has given way to re-search. In the case of harass the stress has shifted the other way, giving harass. We cannot sensibly say that the new form is â€Å"wrong† or â€Å"bad English† (even if we prefer the older form). But we can observe the frequency with which the new form occurs, and see if it does come to supplant the older form or whether both forms persist. Change happens within regional varieties, too – so the glottal stop has moved its way northwards from London and southwards from Glasgow (where it has been found for 150 years). This is one feature of what Paul Kerswill calls dialect levelling. Similarly use of /f/ or /v/ in place of /? / and /? / is spreading north from London. Perhaps the most well documented change occurring now is in sentence intonation. This is especially common among younger people, but not exclusively so. The change lies in a tendency to use rising (question) intonation more frequently. What is not clear, in contexts that allow either, is whether the speaker intends to ask a question or means to make a statement. We cannot be sure if the rising intonation conveys meaning, or is habitual. One common way for pronunciation to change is by elision – compressing the word to remove a syllable. Once it was common to sound the –ed ending on past tense verbs, whereas now these verbs end with a /t/ sound. We do still sound the –ed ending on adjectives, even when these are formed from the past tenses – as in naked, wicked and learned. We can contrast the learned professor with what her pupils learned in the lecture. (The first has two syllables, the second only one. ) Police is often pronounced as a monosyllable /pli? s/ (for example by the newsreader Sue Lawley). Recently I have observed several newsreaders eliding the middle syllable of terrorist, producing the form /t? r st/ or sometimes /t? r? st/. On the other hand, literacy may alter pronunciation. The n in column is silent, and in the Second World War, people would often speak of the Fifth Columnist (/k? l? m? st/). But now broadcasters speaks of those who write columns in newspapers as /k? l? mn? sts/ – thereby sounding what was silent /n/.  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology Phonology for exam students Phonology as an explicit subject of detailed study is not compulsory for students taking Advanced level courses in English Language. But it is one of the five â€Å"descriptions of language† commended by the AQA syllabus B (the others are: lexis, grammar, pragmatics and semantics). In some kinds of study it will be odd if it does not appear in your analysis or interpretation of data. In written exams, you may want to comment on some features of phonology in explaining example language data – these may be presented to you on the exam paper, or may be your own examples, which illustrate, say, some point about language change, language acquisition or sociolinguistics. You may wish to use diagrams, models or the IPA transcription – and if you are able to do so, this may be helpful. But if you do not feel confident about using these, you can still make useful points about phonology – you can show stress simply by underlining or highlighting the stressed syllable. And you can show many aspects of phonology by using the standard Western (Roman-English) alphabet appropriately – as in contrasting pronunciations of harass as: †¢ †¢ ha-russ (first syllable stressed, vowel is a; second syllable unstressed vowel is neutral) or huh-rass (first syllable unstressed, neutral vowel; second syllable stressed, vowel is a) Phonetic symbols and electronic documents Representing phonetic symbols in electronic documents can be a challenge, unless you have the right software. Assuming that you have a word-processing program, you need to use special fonts that will represent the IPA symbols. These are either the SIL IPA fonts (such as SILdoulosIPA) or Unicode fonts (like Lucida Sans Unicode, which I have used in this document). If you are producing work that will be printed, then you can add things by hand later, but this is messy and best avoided. There is a lot of guidance on the IPA homepage about how to cope with this problem. If you do find a way to reproduce the symbols you need, it may make sense to paste them all at the end of the document on which you are working. Then, you can copy and paste as you need to use them. If you do not do this, then you will have to use he Alt key and the numeric keypad, since the keys on the normal keyboard will only give you the symbols that resemble ordinary letters. Different ways of representing sound Conventions of language science and lexicographers If you study reference works you may find a variety of schemes for representing different aspects of phonology – there is no single universal scheme that covers everything y ou may need to do. And many dictionaries may not even use the IPA alphabet, for the very obvious reason that the reader is not familiar with this transcription and can cope without it. The text on the left comes from the Pocket Oxford Dictionary – this shows a simple phonetic representation based on the standard Western alphabet, with accents to show different vowels. Look in any dictionary you have and you may find something similar.  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology Literary models In representing speech – for example in drama, poetry or prose fiction – some authors are interested not merely in the words but also in how they are spoken. One of the most familiar concerns is that of how to represent regional accents. Here is a fairly early example, from the second chapter of Wuthering Heights (1847), in which the servant Joseph refuses to admit Mr. Lockwood into the house: â€Å" ‘T’ maister’s dahn I’t’ fowld. Goa rahnd by the end ut’ laith, if yah went to spake tull him† Tennyson (1809-1892) has a similar approach in his poem, Northern Farmer, Old Style: â€Å"What atta stannin’ theer fur, and doesn’ bring me the aale? / Doctor’s a ‘toattler, lass, and ‘e’s allus i’ the owd taale†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Joseph comes from what is now West Yorkshire, while Tennyson’s farmer is supposedly from the north of Lincolnshire. Here is an earlier example, from Walter Scott’s Heart of Midlothian (1830), which shows some phonetic qualities of the lowlands Scots accent. In this passage the Laird of Dumbiedikes (from the country near Edinburgh) is on his deathbed. He advises his son about how to take his drink: â€Å"My father tauld me sae forty years sin’, but I never fand time to mind him. – Jock, ne’er drink brandy in the morning, it files the stamach sair†¦Ã¢â‚¬  George Bernard Shaw, in Pygmalion (1914), uses one phonetic character (? schwa) in his attempt to represent the accent of Eliza Doolittle, a Cockney flower girl: â€Å"There’s menners f’ yer! T? -oo banches o voylets trod into the mad†¦Will ye-oo py me f’them. † However, after a few sentences of phonetic dialogue, Shaw reverts to standard spelling, noting: â€Å"Here, with apologies, this desperate attempt to represent her dialect without a phonetic alphabet must be abandoned as u nintelligible outside London†. In Pygmalion Professor Higgins teaches Eliza to speak in an upper-class accent, so as to pass her off as a duchess. In the course of the play, therefore, her accent changes. The actress playing the part, however, may have a natural accent closer to that with which Eliza speaks at the completion of her education, so in playing the part she may doing the reverse of what Eliza undergoes, by gradually reverting to a natural manner of articulation. (Eliza’s pronunciation improves ahead of her understanding of grammar, so that at one point she says memorably: â€Å"My aunt died of influenza: so they said. But it’s my belief they done the old woman in. ) In Pygmalion Shaw does not merely represent accent (and other features of speech) but makes this crucial to an exploration of how speech relates to identity and social class. Charles Dickens is particularly interested in the sounds of speech. He observes that many speakers have difficulty with initial /v/ and /w/. Sam Weller, in The Pickwick Papers, regularly transposes these: â€Å" ‘Vell,’ said Sam at length, ‘if this don’t beat cock-fightin’ nothin’ never vill†¦That wery next house†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ â€Å" Mr. Hubble, in Great Expectations does, the same thing when he describes young people as â€Å"naterally wicious†. Joe Gargery, in the same novel, has many verbal peculiarities, of which perhaps the most striking is in his description of the Blacking Warehouse, which is less impressive than the picture Joe has seen on bills where it is â€Å"drawd too architectooralooral†. In Chapter 16 of Our Mutual Friend, Betty Higden is proud of Mr. Sloppy (an orphan she has fostered) not only because he can read, but because he is able to use different voice styles for various speakers. â€Å"You mightn’t think it, but Sloppy is a beautiful reader of a newspaper. He do the Police in different voices. † Dickens also finds a way to show tempo and rhythm. In Chapter 23 of Little Dorrit, Flora Finching speaks at length and without any pauses: â€Å"Most unkind never to have come back to see us since that day, though naturally it was not to be expected that there should be any attraction at our house and you were much more pleasantly engaged, that’s pretty certain, and is she fair or dark blue eyes or black I wonder, not that I expect that she should be anything but a perfect contrast to me in all particulars for I am a disappointment as I very well know and you are quite right to be devoted no doubt though what am I saying Arthur never mind I hardly know myself Good gracious!  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/ Phonology Background reading on phonology There are very full accounts of phonology in both of Professor David Crystal’s encyclopedias. See his Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language, Part IV, The Medium of Language: Speaking and Listening (pp. 123175; ISBN 0521424437) and his E ncyclopedia of the English Language, Part IV, 17, The Sound System (pp. 236-255; ISBN 0521596556). For a very clear and succinct account, look at Howard Jackson’s and Peter Stockwell’s Introduction to the Nature and Functions of Language, 2. 1, Sounds and letters (pp. 11-23; ISBN 0748725806). There is a longer and more discursive account in Shirley Russell’s Grammar, Structure and Style, Spoken English (pp. 107-168; ISBN 0198311982) You can find lots of help online. The best place to start is the International Phonetic Association’s own Web site at: http://www2. arts. gla. ac. uk/IPA/ipa. html You will find some excellent resources from the languages department of the University of Victoria in British Columbia – start at http://web. uvic. ca/ling/ipa/handbook/ For a great introduction to Scots – with some excellent guidance on phonology – try Andy Eagle’s Wir Ain Laid (Our Own Language) at http://www. scots-online. org/grammar/index. htm For help with fonts go to the IPA Unicode site at http://www. phon. ucl. ac. uk/home/wells/ipa-unicode. htm and Alan Wells’ Unicode Resources at http://www. hclrss. demon. co. uk/unicode/index. tml. You could also try the Microsoft typography site at http://www. microsoft. com/typography/default. asp Apart from materials quoted from other sources, the copyright in this guide belongs to Andrew Moore. You are free to use it for any educational purpose, including making multiple copies electronically or by printing. You may not distribute it in any form other than the original, without the express permission of the author. andrew. [email  protected] net  © Copyright: Andrew Moore, 2001 http://www. shunsley. eril. net/armoore/